25 Nov New Comprehensive report of peer reviewed studies gives clearest picture yet of the vast harms attributable to cruise industry

Summary of Environmental and human health impacts of cruise tourism: A review; Josep Lloret a,* , Arnau Carreno˜ , Hrvoje Cari´c , Joan San , Lora E. Fleming; Marine Pollution Bulletin Volume 173, Part A, December 2021, 112979 (full article unfortunately is behind a paywall).

Solid waste, including marine litter, plastics and other inorganic and organic materials, is a growing challenge. Although cruisers make up only a small percentage (less than 1%) of the global shipping industry, it is estimated that a quarter of all waste produced by shipping comes from this sector.  Hazardous waste disposal by incineration results in emissions of dioxins, floating macro waste, micro and nano plastics, with impacts on marine fauna.

Wastewater (black and grey) decreases available dissolved oxygen and the potential for algal blooming, particularly in shallow or enclosed waters. Micropollutants such as pharmaceuticals, personal care products and pathogens can be released into the sea and transferred to other organisms.  Fecal bacteria. Bilge and ballast water hydrocarbons and other pollutants, antibiotic resistant organisms. Spread of global waterborne diseases. Vector borne diseases – malaria, dengue, yellow fever, Japanese encephalitis and Zika.

Antifouling coatings contain copper – toxic to marine organisms and shipyard workers.  Bioaccumulation in small organisms and eventually fish and shellfish and create antibiotic resistant bacteria in marine environments, contributing to antibiotic resistance in public health.

Air pollution. Particulate exhaust is poorly regulated. Local and global air pollution. Heavy fuel oil (fossil fuel)…aka “marine fuel”. High levels of sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides, as well as heavy metals, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH), Contributes to acid rain – can travel large distances (hundreds of miles) from the site of emission and affect farmlands. Also contributes to ocean acidification by altering the pH of the water. Nitrogen oxide is a major precursor for ground level ozone. Despite reductions, cruise ship sulfur oxide emissions in Europe are much larger than all cars in Europe. Air quality on deck is poorly studied (likely because cruise ships don’t want them studied!). One study reported the aft deck cruise ship pollution comparable to Santiago or Beijing. Exhaust gas cleaning systems (scrubbers), only transfer the heavy metal, and acidic pollution from the air to the water. Carbon dioxide and hydrocarbons contribute to global warming. Especially high levels of GHG emissions on cruise ships visiting the Arctic.  Studies show that cruising is a “highly carbon intensive activity”, more so than aviation.  Cruise companies sell trips to the Antarctic and other polar regions as “last chance tourism – see it before it disappears”.  Supposedly increases their environmental awareness. Antarctic cruise ship passengers tripled from 2000 to 2007.  Cashing in on the destruction of the planet instead of acting responsibly. An Antarctic cruise has up to 8 times higher GHG emission per capita and per day than average international tourism trips. No evidence that the trips caused passengers to develop greater environmental awareness, change attitudes, or encourage more sustainable future travel choices. Of the Antarctic cruise passengers surveyed, 59% felt that their travel did not impact climate change.

No systematic monitoring by public authorities of ship discharges and fuel quality is very rarely monitored.  Air pollution is linked to health effects such as COPD (chronic obstructive pulmonary disease) and asthma, cardiovascular diseases including atherosclerosis and stroke. Premature death, lung cancer, cardiovascular disease. Children and the elderly particularly susceptible.

Noise pollution. Causes modification of behavior and habitat use by some fish and mammal species. (Orca, whales in Glacier Bay) Adversely affected development of fish. Also affects passengers, crew, and workers/residents on shore, and inhabitants along coast lines. Very little regulation.

Ship dismantling. Heavy metals and toxic substances on the beaches and river banks of developing countries – Bangladesh, India, and Turkey mainly.  Equity issue – capitalism gives profits to shareholders in the global north, while the global south accepts the toxic waste (and provides much of the labor). Workers exposed to toxic substances (PCBs, asbestos, and oil), as well as controlled/uncontrolled fires.  May also contaminate drinking water.  There are also biological, ergonomic, psychological, and physical hazards in these shipyards. Toxicity from heavy metals may include neurologic and renal damage, increased risk of cancer. Asbestos can induce chronic inflammation in the lung, increased lung cancer.

Cruise ship Accidents pose major environmental hazard – oil spills, as well as human tragedies. There is evidence that some cruise corporations have purposely disobeyed laws, rules, and regulations. Unregulated seas.

Collisions with marine mammals and sea turtles are a major issue. Cruise ship size and velocity have all increased.  A significant fatal threat for whales. Noise can interfere with cetacean communication and prevent animals from detecting/reacting to threats.

Light pollution. Affects organisms that need darkness for orientation in daily and seasonal migrations, feeding, and breeding. Brightly lit cruise ships on a dark sea can disorient birds that fly low and/or migrate at night resulting in collisions. Also affects zooplankton, cephalopods, fish, and potentially other marine species. Nesting sea turtles.

Effects of wakes and sediment resuspension in shallow water bodies. Impacts the integrity of the sea bottom. Suspended sediments affecting coral reef survival.

Other environmental impacts. Fresh water overconsumption on Caribbean islands and the Mediterranean. Climate change will exacerbate these issues. New port construction affects sea beds, major threats to local seagrass meadows and coral reefs. Anchoring in coral reefs can cause irreparable damage. Increased tourism in sensitive ecological areas, often without minimum impact practices.

Health Impacts – Infections.  Respiratory. Close contact of crew and passengers in confined spaces. Contaminated food, water, or infected passengers – global spread. Hypothesis – accelerated the spread of influenza annually and coronavirus. More than half of cruise passengers older than 64 – more vulnerable. Whirlpools and water supplies act as reservoirs of disease if contaminated.  Legionella and influenza are most common. Legionella has a long incubation which may not be detected until the person goes  home. “Cruise ships offer the perfect combination of factors that may lead to the spreading of new pandemics, with the SARS-CoV-2 the most recent example.” Other diseases with respiratory spread reported on cruise ships include TB, diphtheria, varicella, measles, and rubella.

Gastrointestinal. Although GI outbreaks are declining, it is possible they are underreported for a variety of reasons.

Sexual assaults a major problem on cruises. 101 reported cases in 2019 on cruises that embarked and disembarked from US ports. Has many physical and mental health consequences including chronic pain, anxiety, sleep disorders, depression and suicide.

Mental health issues for crew – homesickness, depression. Sleep disorders. Long hours, Noise exposure leading to sleep disturbance, anxiety, hypertension, heavy workload, uncertainty regarding future employment (most crew members recruited from Philippines and other nations with endemic poverty in global south. Typically the sign 10 month contracts, 10-14 hour workdays/7 days, no vacation or sick days. Low pay ($2/day in some cases, rely on tips).

Sociocultural and economic issues. Stress among residents in cruise destination host communities due to crowding/congestion, increased cost of living, pollution, police harassment, displacement, overused utilities (water, power) – e.g. Jamaica. Perhaps less noticeable in a large city like Seattle, these issues are magnified in smaller communities such as in Alaska (see also the excellent article by Hakai – BC publication – Leviathans in the Harbor. https://hakaimagazine.com/features/leviathans-in-the-harbor/, which documents the effects of cruise corporation owned businesses, including franchised gift shops on land, crowding out local business.

“The actual economic benefits from the cruise industry seem to be restricted to very few large corporations with relatively small economic benefits at a local level (Caric, 2010), whereas the environmental and health impacts are widespread (local, regional and global). Despite early studies which found significant passenger spending while visiting a harbor and made claims about the local, regional and national economic impact of cruise tourism, recent studies demonstrate that cruise passenger spending is overstated in part because of the failure to use appropriate sampling methods (Kayahan et al., 2018; Larsen et al., 2013). Recent research suggests little return on investment for the local residents and smaller businesses (McCaughey et al., 2018). This is because cruise tourists tend not to stray far from their cruise ship “bubble” of comfort, generally either booking excursions from the ship itself or venturing only into a tightly controlled area surrounding the port (Jaakson, 2004). As a result, cruise tourists generally spend their money either on the cruise ship itself or on businesses that are economically tied to cruise companies, resulting in significant economic leakage away from communities hosting cruise tourism (Nicely and Palakurthi, 2012). These facts explain why cruise tourists generally spend less in a cruise destination compared to land-based tourists (Larsen et al., 2013; Larsen and Wolff, 2016). The trade-off between the value of cruise passenger spending and costs associated with infrastructure required to host ships, including cruise terminals, is a contested and arguable topic (Klein, 2011).

Although the cruise industry expends considerable effort and resources to maintain a positive image with regard to corporate social and environmental responsibility, recent studies suggest, after examining cruise practices, that this image is inaccurately represented (Klein, 2018, 2019).

By linking several environmental and human health topics, this review demonstrates how the cruise industry is (adversely – JVV) affecting the health of the planet (particularly the ocean) and the health of humans

Overall, we can conclude that cruise tourism is a maritime activity causing major impacts on the environment and human health and wellbeing, with most likely small and doubtful local economic benefits when negative externalities are monitored and disclosed.